The Carnival in France: 13th Century

Based on the historical records, it started in Nice in 1294. The Comte de Provence started going to Nice for the carnivals. Records state that even during the time, masquerades, jugglers and balls were already part of the festivities.

The popularity of the event spread all over the country. One of the most notable characteristics was that all participants wore masks and extravagant costumes.

The Middle Ages

The popularity of Mardi Gras in France spread all over Europe. From 1294 onwards the festivity captivated other European nations including Spain, Austria and Italy. In spite of the revelry and boisterous nature of the event, the Church was unable to put a stop to the practice. Instead they incorporated it into the Christian feast known as Lent.

Fat Tuesday

The words Mardi Gras mean Fat Tuesday in French. The fact that the carnival name is French is proof for some that the carnival began in France.

There are several possible explanations as to how it got this name. Taking place before Ash Wednesday, it’s been suggested that it was the time when people got to indulge in food before fasting on Lent.

Another legend about Mardi Gras in France states that the name was derived from the practice of using all the fats before Ash Wednesday. The name could have also come from the custom of displaying a fat ox in the streets on the said date.

Shrove Tuesday

The day is also known as the Shrove Tuesday. The word was derived from the words to shrive. It means confessing one’s sins and getting absolution. The days from Sunday, Monday to Tuesday was called Shrovetide. It’s possible that the practice began here. After the festivities, people would confess their sins and prepare for Lent.

From Paris to New Orleans

Because Mardi Gras in France was so popular, it was hardly a surprise when the first French settlers in America carried the practice with them. It was in 1699 when the carnival was introduced in New Orleans. Over time the practice became very popular with the residents of the city.

However there are some who believe that the French first imported the event to Mobile, Alabama. Carnival was first celebrated in 1703 in Mobile. There are also records indicating that there were French colonists living in the area.

The people in Louisiana contest this though. They state that their ancestors were the ones who inaugurated carnival in the US. Wherever it began, carnival proved enormously appealing to the people. In spite of the various European influences that would appear, the French flavor has never been lost.

The history of Mardi Gras in France are still filled with some questions. Some are wondering if it really started there or somewhere else. But its role in popularizing the event cannot be ignored. And it was also responsible for bringing the event to the America.

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Defining the Condition

In layman’s terms, camptodactyly is the condition where there is a deformity in the fingers. Other people may have it on other fingers on their hands but you will usually find evidence of this on the pinky fingers. Such deformed fingers are usually bent either severely or just slightly.

A common occurrence among such cases is that these deformed fingers won’t be able to straighten out or extend naturally. Some people’s pinkies are more bent than others since some cases are milder than others. It may require a health professional to identify this said condition.

Causes of Camptodactyly/Bent Pinky Fingers

There are a number of causes of this condition that comes with the deformity of the fingers. Some causes include contracted ligaments and contracted tendons, which one might initially think of as the cause. However, some causes may not seem too obvious at the time like tight skin and abnormal muscles. One cause of this condition that can easily be detected is irregularly shaped bones.

Common Incidence

There are those who wonder just how common does this condition occur within the general population. The truth is that the exact number of incidence of camptodactyly is definitely unknown. The best thing that we can ever come up with is a rough estimate of the incidence of this said condition. A good estimate would be one percent of the total general population. Of course, this estimate will have varying degrees in terms of accuracy.

From what is known, it is observed that camptodactyly is more frequent with the female population than that of the male. It has also been observed that most cases of getting bent pinky fingers are more likely sporadic. However, it has also been observed that there are patients who might have relatives or ancestors who have the very same condition. Do take note that this said condition can also be an element of one underlying syndrome one might be experiencing.

Diagnosis and Treatment

Do not try to diagnose camptodactyly on your own. Don’t jump to any conclusion if you find a friend or relative to have bent pinky fingers. If you suspect that you have this said condition you should see your doctor. Mild cases or deformities rarely cause any functional problems. Surgery is not usually recommended for such cases. You should solicit the aid of a treating physician for severe deformities.

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The Reason Behind the Red Appearance of Mars

Why is Mars called the red planet? Due to its red appearance, many people have referred to Mars as the ‘Red Planet.’ The primary reason behind this is the prevalence of iron oxide, which is commonly referred to as rust. It produces a red-orange appearance right at the planet’s surface. Because of its bright color, it is very much visible from the Earth. Only the sun, moon and Venus are brighter than this planet, which has a 2.9 magnitude.

In terms of physical characteristics, Mars only measures around half of the Earth’s radius. Its density is lower as well compared to that of the Earth. Even Mercury, which is considerably smaller than the red planet, is denser. Aside from iron oxide, its soil also has other elements and nutrients such as chloride, potassium and magnesium. Furthermore, it also has sodium among other important elements, which are needed by living organisms in order to grow.

Other Important and Interesting Facts about Mars

Because of the low atmospheric pressure in the planet, the possibility of having liquid water on it is not possible. Meanwhile, there is much supply of water ice on its surface. The estimated time when the planet lost its magnetosphere is around four billion years ago. The major components of the atmosphere in Mars include 1.6 percent argon, 3 percent nitrogen and 95 percent carbon dioxide. There are also little traces of water and oxygen on the planet.

Methane is also present in the atmosphere of Mars. Scientists associate the presence of this element to numerous factors including the impact of comets as well as volcanic activity. There is also such a thing as serpentinization in the planet, which is a non-biological process. It involves key elements such as mineral olivine, carbon dioxide and water. The distance between this planet and the sun is estimated to be somewhere around 230 million kilometers. Another interesting thing about this planet is the orbital period, which is set at 687 days. Just like the Earth, Mars also has changing seasons, namely aphelion and perihelion.

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Origins

The party’s beginnings can be traced back to the works of Saloth Sar, or Pol Pot. In the early 1950s he became part of the Second Congress of the KPRP. He became very influential, owing to his position as middleman between the leftist groups and Communist movement that was gaining ground.

During the mid 1960s he went to North Vietnam to secure aid for an attempt to overthrow the government. Under the Communist Party of Kampuchea (the official name of the party), Pol Pot launched insurgency campaigns against the government. By the early 1970s the history of the Khmer Rouge would change forever as it assumed total control of Cambodia.

In Power: 1975 – 79

As soon as Pol Pot assumed power, radical reforms were undertaken. It has come to be known as agrarian Communism, which had never been seen or adapted before even in Marxist countries.

Pol Pot issued a directive to close down all financial institutions and schools. Industries and offices were destroyed. Money and religious practices were banned. He had the capital of Phnom Penh devoid of life and business.

This would be repeated in various parts of the country. A study of the history of the Khmer Rouge will show that its goal was to turn the country into an isolated, agricultural state.

After confiscating all property, the people were forcibly taken from their homes and sent to farmlands. There they were forced to work as farmers.

Crimes against Humanity

According to the new laws, everyone from age 7 up had to work in the farm. No exceptions were made for the elderly or the ill. People worked six days a week, 12 hours a day. Their daily sustenance consisted of a bowl of gruel and one fish.

Anyone who tried to eat fruits or seafood was subject to the death penalty. The history of the Khmer Rouge will show they considered intellectuals an enemy. All books were burned. Every form of education was outlawed. The only thing that people were allowed to learn was the doctrine of the party.

Fall of the Party

Although it began as a Communist party, its stands and behavior became more and more radical. Their actions led to disputes with Vietnam. In 1979, Vietnam invaded and took over the leadership. It was only after the overthrow was the full extent of Pol Pot’s crimes uncovered.

Over 3 million people died. Most died from starvation, torture and disease. Mass graves were found throughout the country. In spite of the report made to the war crimes tribunal, the history of the Khmer Rouge will show that Pol Pot never went to trial. He passed away in 1998.

Although the party is no longer in power, its atrocities have left a mark on Cambodia and its people that will never be forgotten.

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The Main Purpose of Movie Reviews

Whether or not it’s the writer’s intention, the main purpose of a movie review is to inform an audience about a movie. This sounds so simple that it’s almost ridiculous to state. The fact is, to review something is to dissect it to come to some conclusion while showing how you arrived at said conclusion. If a reviewer thinks a movie is ‘bad’ then he or she must show how that conclusion was drawn if the review is to be considered as having much (or any weight). Simply put, a review demands a certain level of analysis and it’s this analysis that people look for.

There are many persons who read reviews simple for the facts. Some of us just do not want to go into a movie without at least having an idea of what to expect. So even if we ignore the rant about the movie’s length or how bad the dialogue is, we still know approximately how much time we will spend in the theatre. We may accept that the reviewer may be biased or malicious but at least we’ve gather a few facts: we know who wrote it, who directed, who’s in it, where it’s set and what the basic story line is.

How Reviews Help Us

Reviews act like referral reports. Most times you feel like buying a product or service but you want to know if anyone else did the same and how they feel about the purchase. The thing about any review is that it’s an opinion or ‘product rating’ even if the reader does not cling to the reviewer’s every word. Some of us may want to see a movie but get the impression that it’s not worth the trip to the theatre so we’ll wait for it on DVD while some may wonder if the movie is overrated based on the marketing campaign so we go in search of reviews and read a couple to get a general consensus. For this reason some people will look at only ‘professional’ reviews while some will look for reviews from the lay person who (more than likely) has nothing to gain from endorsing or bashing a film.

Why Curiosity Leads People to Reading Reviews

The reason is the same as to ‘why people read tabloid magazines’. Collectively we are gregarious animals but we not only come with the innate tendency to be social, we also come with an innate curiosity that often gets the better of us. So even if we decide not to read someone’s opinion of the movie so we can form our own after watching it, the fact is, someone said some something, we want to know what and (sometimes) why. Whether we are information hounds, reading reviews is our hobby or we’re just plain inquisitive or bored, we will always want to know what other people think about almost anything we have an interest in.

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The reason why the Holocaust happened had to do with Hitler’s belief that the Jews were responsible for the misery in Germany at the time. Anti Semitism was not new, but the Nazis brought the terrorizing to another level.

Hitler’s Idea of the Superior Race

Although he was Austrian, Hitler became more of a German than most nationalists at the time. He fervently believed that the Germans were descended of the superior Aryan race.

He saw most of humanity as inferior to the Aryan class. Above all, he considered the Jews as subhuman. Hitler didn’t just think that they should be enslaved; he wanted them exterminated. In looking for an explanation as to why the Holocaust happened, this theory of the superior is one of them.

The Jews in Germany

The Jews were a minority in Germany at the time. There were only 550,000 from the 66 million population of the country. Still, they contributed to the country’s economy. 10% of the doctors there were Jews. Over 16% of lawyers and over 5% of its writers were also Jewish.

In addition they also held positions in some banks. In Hitler’s eyes, this was a problem. He didn’t think they helped the country. What he saw were subhuman beings taking away work and profit from the master race. This is why the Holocaust happened; as Hitler entered politics, he used the Jews as scapegoats. During the time, several people came to support him.

Jewish Persecution

The persecution started the moment the Nazis came to power. Within a few years of Nazi rule, the Jews were forbidden to hold on to their jobs. Their movement was restricted and so were their business opportunities. Stores and shops forbade selling of items to Jews. Many restaurants forbade them from entering the premises.

This was only the beginning. Unknown to the world at the tine the persecution had begun even before World War II. By 1938, the Nazi secret police imprisoned Jews, took away their property and burned their homes.

When looking for an explanation as to why the Holocaust happened, it can’t be denied that other Germans supported Hitler. Because the Nazis were able to provide employment, some found it easy to look the other way.

The Final Solution

The Jews would leave Germany, but they wouldn’t be safe. The Nazis hunted them down in conquered lands. In the Soviet Union, special corps were set up. Their sole purpose was to round up and kill Jewish men, women and children. The scene was repeated throughout Europe. Most were killed in gas chambers. Thousands were beaten to death.

Many became subject to medical experiments. The greatest number of victims died in Auschwitz, Poland. 2.5 million Jews were gassed to death. Another half a million died of hunger. All in all, over 6 million Jews were killed by the Nazis.

In trying to understand why the Holocaust happened, it becomes clear its root lie in anti Semitism. Hitler was not the first to harbor this sentiment. But it was his actions that brought the issue to the forefront in the 20th century.

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The Reason for Writing the Declaration of Independence

Why was the Declaration of Independence written? The primary reason why Thomas Jefferson and company wrote this document was to explain and announce the decision of the U.S. to be separated from Britain. Because the country was then under British rule for some time, this all-important document was written to justify its independence from the foreign power.

In doing so, the leaders of the country listed numerous colonial grievances that went against the rule of King George III. In that particular document, the U.S. citizens clamored for their various important natural rights such as the right to revolt. Additionally, it also announced the ever-growing desire of the country to have its freedom and independence. To do that, the author mentioned the importance of happiness, liberty and life for every individual.

Important Details and Other Relevant Information About the Document

The U.S. Declaration of Independence was created sometime in between June and July 1776. It was ratified on July 4 of that very same year. Overall, 56 Continental Congress delegates approved and signed the document. Among the represented states were Georgia, South Carolina and Virginia. Other representatives came from other active states such as Pennsylvania, New Jersey and New York. At the point in time, the President of the Congress was John Hancock, who represented Massachusetts. A committee led by John Adams, Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson authored the document.

From the numerous delegates who were supposed to sign this all-important document, a few of them were unable to give their signatures. Henry Wisner, Robert R. Livingston and George Clinton were somewhere else attending various kinds of important functions when the signing transpired. John Rogers, Charles Humphreys and Thomas Willing were replaced. John Dickenson did not sign the document.

In addition, new delegates were allowed to sign the document. The list included George Ross, James Smith and Benjamin Rush. Charles Carroll, George Taylor and William Williams were also present and took part in the signing. George Clymer and Matthew Thornton also approved the Declaration of Independence. Such important move in U.S. history was emulated in various corners of the world including the Vietnam Declaration of Independence in 1945, the Liberian Declaration of Independence in 1847 and the Venezuelan Declaration of Independence in 1811.

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Origins

The committee was set up in 1934. The name makes clear that its purpose was to monitor the activities of any individuals that could threaten the US. Those with German blood were on the list. Also high on its list were those involved in plots to overthrow the government or involved with Communists. Very quickly however it focused mainly on the Communist threat as the Cold War intensified.

Influence and Power

The history of the HUAC will always be associated with its chair, Martin Dies. The committee would wield great power especially when World War II broke out. Anyone with ties to the Germans or Japanese became liable for subpoenas and investigations. The same was true when the Cold War emerged.

However its power was largely abused. Dies would concentrate the investigations on left wing party groups. Conservatives and right wingers to which he belonged were never checked.

The committee had the power to subpoena and issue arrests. Those who refused to attend were blacklisted. Those found guilty of Communism or subversion were sentenced to jail. One of them was Alger Hiss, a well known diplomat. Those on the blacklist found it virtually impossible to get jobs and were discriminated.

Note: the history of the HUAC is often confused with that of Senator Joseph McCarthy. They were not the same. Senator McCarthy was in the Senate, while Dies was in Congress. However, their activities and measures were the same. Some researchers also felt that the House committee may have influenced Senator McCarthy into his later actions.

The Hollywood Ten

In the late 1940s up to the early 50s, the threat of Communism grew. The committee started looking into Hollywood. They suspected that there were Communists there plotting something against the government.

It was supposed to be an investigation, but its members had already made up their minds about the case. The committee charged the Screen Writer’s Guild of harboring Communists.

A study of the history of the HUAC will show that they also wanted to prove that Communist propaganda was being used in films. The committee also said that President Roosevelt encouraged pro Russian films to be shown.

Eleven Hollywood personalities were suspected of being Communists. The German playwright Bertolt Brecht was the only one who responded to the inquiries by the committee. He denied being a Communist. But his career was so affected he left the US.

The others became known as the Hollywood ten. They refused to answer questions citing the 5th Amendment. Under pressure from the committee, the ten were suspended without pay. More suspected Communists lost their jobs.

The committee was dissolved as the threat of the Cold War ceased. However the history of the HUAC is a reminder of the difficulties that people faced during the period.

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Who is John Harrington of Kelston?

John Harrington of Kelston was born on August 4, 1591 and was a master of art, a literary author, and a courtier. The invention of the flush toilet is credited to him thus the pet name John is given to toilets. He is best known for poetry and other writings. His best work is a political allegory entitled “A New Discourse of a Stale Subject: The Metamorphosis of Ajax” published in 1596.

The book was about his invention simply called Ajax taken from the word ‘jakes’ or ‘a jakes’ which is another word they have for a toilet. Because of this and other works, John Harrington fell out of favor with the royalty of the time. His best work, The Metamorphosis of Ajax, is more of a coded attack against the ills of the day, which really became popular in 1596.

The Invention of the Flush Toilet

Though the American euphemism for the flush toilet has cemented John Harrington’s name into our everyday language, he was really not the first to have invented one. We can more accurately say that he was the first to utilize one in Britain. The truth is the invention of the flush toilet didn’t come about during John Harrington’s lifetime.

As early as 26 BC, flush toilets have been in use among the peoples of the Indus Valley. Flush toilets have been in use for centuries in Knossos as early the 18th century BC. Like other inventions we currently enjoy, the creation of the flush toilet is not a one-time event. It took quite a while for such an invention to be developed.

Forerunner of a Modern Invention

Since we have no real idea who to credit with this invention, calling the toilet the John isn’t really that accurate. However, to be more politically correct, we can say that Harrington’s invention was a forerunner of the modern device we now enjoy. A great many have contributed to the development of the flush toilet like Thomas Twyford, Elvis Sloan, J. G. Jennings and others. Thus we must remember the many innovators of the time even as we head on to the John.

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Blue Dust Particles

The Sun scatters dust particles around the atmosphere. These dust particles consists of different colors including yellow, red and blue among others. Each of these colors have different wavelengths.

Colors like yellow and orange have longer wavelengths. It allows them to go by much more quickly. Blue has the shortest, so it tends to scatter around a lot more. This is the reason why on a sunny day the atmosphere has that hue all around, and that is why the sky is blue.

How Sunsets and Sunrises Happen

As the day goes by, the blue wavelengths begin to dissipate. When they do the red, yellow and orange wavelengths appear. Along with them are pink, violet and other colors. When the blue color disappears, the others ones become visible. These are what we see during the sunset. The same thing happens just before the Sun rises up in the morning.

Because the Sun has not fully risen, there are less dust and vapors around. That is the reason why colors in the morning appear softer. By contrast, sunsets are noted for their vividness. This is due to the various dust particles around. When studying the reason why the sky is blue, it’s also crucial that you learn about the role of the Sun.

Effects of Clouds

It is also worth noting that clouds also play a part in determining the colors and hues. Clouds are made of water and ice. Both of them are capable of displaying prisms of colors. When the Sun hits them, various lights and shades appear. That is why some clouds appear yellowish, orange or in other shades.

Of course the abovementioned scenarios happen only when the sky is clear. During thunderstorms, grey clouds cover the skies. When there’s the possibility of rain, the dust particles are covered.

Also, the large clouds tend to cover most of the sky. When there is rain, the colors won’t be seen. As you go over the reasons why the sky is blue, the effect of thunderstorms cannot be discounted either.

After the rain however, the sky clears up very quickly. Another effect of rain is the rainbow. This is caused by the Sun’s ray being refracted by raindrops in the atmosphere. The skies are also very clear in the mornings at winter. If you go to a mountaintop, the atmosphere is also very visible.

The Early Researchers

It was John Tyndall who discovered in 1859 that blue wavelengths are the ones that get scattered the most. He simply used a light to focus on soap bubbles in water. Other researchers who studied the matter included Isaac Newton, Lord Rayleigh and Leonardo Da Vinci.

It is only natural for people to wonder about the skies around us. To this day people still wonder why the sky is blue and ask the question. Now you know the answer.

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